Ultrafast, high-power lasers operating in the near-infrared (NIR) region are key to accelerating ions to extremely high energies. By changing the laser wavelength from the NIR region to the hard X-ray range, the photon energy increases more than 10 000 times. The interaction mechanisms and, consequently, radiation attenuation lengths differ significantly between these two spectral ranges. Here we report the use of an X-ray free-electron laser (European XFEL, Germany) delivering 9. 3 keV photons in 25 fs pulses and a total energy of 0. 35 mJ on a solid target. Electrons and ions escaping from an irradiated 3 μm Cu foil into vacuum were investigated by a time-of-flight technique using windowless electron multipliers that enable the measurement of very weak currents. A model based on a shifted Maxwell–Boltzmann velocity distribution of species was used to analyze the detector signals. The method used made it possible to determine the temperatures of hot electrons and protons, their center-of-mass energy, the charge states of the isotopes ^63Cu and ^65Cu, and the magnitude of the voltage arising in the double layer that accelerated them, and to estimate the repetition frequency of their cascade emission from the plasma. Computer simulations revealed the evolution of the electron density and temperature, the ion charge state distribution, and the time scales of processes occurring in the bulk of irradiated matter. Good correlation of theoretical and experimental results over the range of high-energy-density states demonstrates the capability to provide critical data to develop plasma models in the warm dense matter regime.
Burian et al. (2026) studied this question.