ABSTRACT Tubular tissues, including the trachea, pulmonary artery, and coronary artery, possess the complex branched geometries crucial for physiological functions. This study presents a rigorous quantitative framework for evaluating the geometric accuracy of 3D‐printed tubular models. By leveraging high‐resolution CT imaging and computational reconstruction, the framework provides a high‐fidelity basis for simulating coronary blood flow. Utilizing Mimics and 3‐matic software, anatomical structures were converted into 3D STL files. Accuracy was assessed by comparing these files to the original DICOM images and subsequently comparing 3D‐printed physical models back to the digital STL counterparts via multi‐axial measurements at identical anatomical landmarks along the X , Y , and Z axes. Statistical validation, including linear regression, Pearson's correlation, ICC, and Bland–Altman plots, revealed the excellent geometric fidelity ( r ² > 0.99, ICC = 0.98) with negligible localized deformations. Furthermore, we integrated coronary blood flow‐perfusion simulation under the normal and diseased conditions to demonstrate the potential of the reconstructed model as a non‐invasive tool for diagnosis and treatment planning. These findings validate the precision and reliability of high‐fidelity 3D‐printed tubular as reliable tools for preoperative planning, personalized surgical simulation, and advanced medical education. Also, this study provided a robust platform for improving clinical outcomes in complex branched tissue interventions.
Zhao et al. (2026) studied this question.