Experimental validation delivers five quantified outcomes. First, optical pheromone detection achieves 88.7% ± 0.6% accuracy (n = 150, 95% CI), and the dual-modality combined channel achieves 86.1% ± 0.9% (n = 200), with robustness confirmed under 50/60 Hz flicker interference, rapid 200–1200 lux light transitions (485 ms settling), and reflective glare spots. Second, the MQ-135 chemical channel calibration holds R2 ≥ 0.999 across temperatures of 15–35 °C and humidity of 30–90%, with maximum voltage drift of 0.093 V at the highest temperature. Third, 3.2× CNN inference speedup through 8-bit quantisation runs at 15 FPS within 1.8 W. Fourth, peripheral subsystems draw a measured mean of 1.19 W ± 0.02 W (n = 60, 95% CI); the complete per-robot system, including the Jetson Orin Nano compute rail, draws 6.15 W ± 0.09 W, enabling six-hour missions from the 55.08 Wh battery. Fifth, localisation across ten trials yields the mean position error 0.074 m and RMSE 0.081 m with 97.5% map coverage; physical multi-robot tests with 5–8 robots confirm map convergence times of 120–210 steps with collision rates below 0.042 per robot per step. To the best of our knowledge, no prior physical swarm platform has simultaneously demonstrated this combination of capabilities under comparable constraints.
Sheikder et al. (2026) studied this question.