Improved forage production and utilisation in mixed crop–livestock systems around watersheds in Ethiopia: opportunities and barriers

In Ethiopia, feed shortages driven by land scarcity and climate variability severely limit livestock productivity. Despite decades of watershed-based interventions, comparative evidence regarding their effectiveness remains limited. A cross-sectional survey of 443 households in Sidama and Central Ethiopia compared model and non-model watersheds to evaluate the effectiveness of integrated interventions on improved forage adoption within mixed crop–livestock systems. Data from household interviews, key informants and focus groups were analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, multiple linear regression and logistic regression. Adoption of improved forages was significantly higher in model watersheds, where farmers allocated more land and had better access to seeds, irrigation and training. Desho (Pennisetum pedicellatum) and elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) dominated production, while overall species diversity remained low. Irrigation and training were the strongest predictors of yield, especially during the dry season, while harvesting age consistently influenced productivity. Logistic regression showed that training increased the likelihood of adoption almost tenfold, and model households were almost twice as likely to adopt compared to non-model households. Persistent barriers included seed shortages, land pressure and limited climate knowledge. Integrated institutional and ecological support is essential for initial adoption and for scaling climate-resilient practices across similar socio-economic systems.