Whether Earth’s continents developed continent-scale highlands comparable to the Tibetan Plateau and Cordilleran systems in the past, and what governed their formation, remains a fundamental question. Here, we present the first globally consistent reconstruction of continental paleoelevation over the past 4 b.y., integrating a global igneous geochemical dataset (100,000 samples) with machine-learning−derived crustal thickness and time-varying isostatic modeling. Continents remained largely underwater through most of the Archean, progressively emerging in the Neoarchean. Since ca. 2.1 Ga, extreme elevations recurrently exceeded Tibetan-level thresholds (∼4.5 km; 95th percentile), forming laterally coherent, continent-scale orogenic systems. These super-highland intervals broadly coincide with major supercontinent assembly phases, including Columbia (Nuna), Rodinia, Gondwana, and Pangea. Spatial clustering further shows that these extreme elevations formed organized orogenic belts rather than isolated topographic highs. In contrast, the Mesoproterozoic exhibits persistently subdued topography and weak orogenic clustering, reflecting sluggish plate convergence and inefficient crustal thickening, favoring distributed, low-relief deformation. Renewed orogenesis in the Stenian to Tonian (ca. 1.1−0.9 Ga) briefly restored high elevations before Rodinia breakup. After Rodinia’s breakup, extreme elevations became more sustained, consistent with a cooler and mechanically stronger lithosphere under a more efficient convergent regime. These results show that laterally extensive orogenic super highlands have recurred since the Paleoproterozoic and were controlled by the coupled evolution of plate kinematics and lithospheric strength. The Mesoproterozoic marks a pivotal transition toward the colder, stronger-lithosphere configuration that governs modern orogeny.
Zhou et al. (2026) studied this question.