This study investigates the relationship between educational leadership, ICT-related factors, and students’ reading performance using the PISA 2022 dataset for Türkiye. Drawing data from 7250 students and 196 school principals, we employed multilevel structural equation modeling and Bayesian estimation. At the student level, between-school actions to sustain learning (SCHSUST) were significantly related to reading achievement. All student-level ICT variables—self-efficacy in digital competencies, practices regarding online information, and subject-related ICT use—significantly predicted reading achievement. Bayesian mediation analysis confirmed significant indirect relationships at student level, indicating that SCHSUST is associated with reading achievement primarily through ICT variables. Students’ economic, social and cultural status predicted reading achievement, indicating socioeconomic inequalities. At the school level, educational leadership (EDULEAD) has been found to be positively associated with preparedness for digital learning and school preparation for remote instruction. However, EDULEAD was negatively related to reading achievement. At the school level, all indirect relationships were insignificant. Furthermore, “economic, social and cultural status” and “academic school selectivity” emerged as the strongest predictors of reading achievement at their respective levels, indicating that the majority of reading inequality is due to substantial between-school inequality, in addition to the socioeconomic basis of digital inequality. Overall, the study highlights that meaningful ICT integration, rather than mere infrastructure provision, is associated with improved reading achievement.
Aydemir et al. (2026) studied this question.