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A quantitative surface analysis by Auger-electron spectroscopy (AES) or x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) requires a series of operations that typically includes instrument setup, specimen positioning, data acquisition, data manipulation, and data analysis. These operations involve a sequence of measurements which are combined and/or compared with other data to yield an analysis. The final result has an estimated uncertainty that reflects the sum of the separate random and systematic errors in the various measurements and sources of data. We identify the major steps in typical analyses and comment on the major sources of error leading to estimates of uncertainty. Systematic errors generally exceed those of a random nature and are associated with the complex morphology of typical specimens, with parameters of instrument performance, and with limitations of current methodology and data. We review general measurement principles for surface analysis, the development of a suitable analytical strategy, and identify and discuss many of the sources of error. The discussion is specific to AES and XPS but many of the issues are relevant to other techniques of surface analysis. Finally, two examples are presented to illustrate the sources and magnitudes of some of the errors and the final uncertainties in some common examples of surface analyses.
Powell et al. (1990) studied this question.