Advances in Horizon Mapping and Fault Interpretation: Methodologies and Challenges in 3-D Seismic Data

Abstract Seismic mapping plays a critical role in subsurface characterisation by enabling the visualisation of stratal reflectors and fault networks within 3-D seismic volumes. This study presents a systematic methodology that integrates structured interpretation workflows with quantitative fault analyses to improve accuracy and reduce uncertainties in complex basins. Objective uncertainties (resolution limits, velocity model inaccuracies) and subjective uncertainties (interpreter bias) were evaluated and addressed through, high-resolution mapping, and iterative validation using software tools. We integrate qualitative and quantitative seismic interpretation workflows to mitigate these uncertainties, ensuring precise subsurface characterisation from printed 2-D seismic profiles to 3-D seismic data into simulation software. A total of 364 structural faults were interpreted across four fault maps (FM-1 to FM-4). These faults exhibit diverse structural styles, including apparent planar and listric faults, block faulting (grabens, horsts, tilted blocks), and conjugate faults (V-, Y-, and X-shaped). Quantitative analyses reveal that fault lengths range from 52.34m to 19,238.10m, with maximum displacements reaching up to 13,314.70m in FM-4. Power-law relationships between fault length and max. throw/displacement were established, with strong correlations in FM-1 (R² = 0.62) and FM-2 (R² = 0.65), while FM-4 exhibited greater variability (R² = 0.30/0.40), suggesting structural heterogeneity. Centralised displacement gradients ranged from 0.04 to 9.80, with FM-4 showing the highest mean gradient value of 1.33, indicating segmentation and fault growth complexity. It highlights the importance of systematic seismic workflows in reducing interpretation biases and improving fault detection accuracy, which is essential for energy exploration, geomechanical modelling, and subsurface storage.