Predictors and Protective Factors of Mental Health Outcomes Among Indonesian Adolescents: An SCT-Based Multi-Center Study

Background: Mental health issues among adolescents are a growing global concern, particularly in Southeast Asia. While the role of psychosocial factors in shaping mental health outcomes is widely acknowledged, there is limited understanding of the specific predictors and protective factors in Indonesia. This study applies Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) to explore how individual, social, and environmental factors influence depression, anxiety, and stress among Indonesian adolescents. Aims: To identify psychosocial predictors and protective factors associated with depression, anxiety, and stress among Indonesian adolescents, to inform more targeted interventions. Methods: A multi-center cross-sectional study was conducted between July and October 2023, involving 2,984 adolescents from 19 public senior high schools in West Sumatra, Yogyakarta, and Central Kalimantan. Participants completed anonymous self-administered surveys, including eight validated instruments, including the PAQ-A, PPPS, IDASS-Y, RSES, MSPSS, ESSA, CYRM-R, and SIS. Descriptive statistics, Pearson correlations, and hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to identify key factors. Results: Gender was a significant predictor, with females exhibiting higher levels of depressive symptoms (β = .083, p < .001), anxiety (β = .179, p < .001), and stress (β = .171, p < .001). Peer pressure and academic stress were significant predictors of psychological distress (all p < .05). Higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress were strongly associated with increased suicidal ideation (all p < .001). Protective factors such as self-esteem, resilience, social support, and physical activity were associated with lower levels of depression, anxiety, and stress (all p < .05). The regression models explained 57.1% of the variance in depression, 42.8% in anxiety, and 46.3% in stress. Conclusion: Gender, academic stress, and peer pressure were major predictors of mental distress, while self-esteem, resilience, and physical activity acted as protective factors. Interventions targeting these areas, grounded in SCT, are essential to improving adolescent mental health in Indonesia.