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Abstract Mapping land cover (LC) in mountainous regions, such as the Gilgit-Baltistan (GB) area of Pakistan, presents significant challenges due to complex terrain, limited data availability, and accessibility constraints. This study addresses these challenges by developing a robust, data-driven approach to classify LC using high-resolution Sentinel-2 (S-2) satellite imagery from 2019 within Google Earth Engine (GEE). The research evaluated the performance of various machine learning (ML) algorithms, including classification and regression tree (CART), maximum entropy (gmoMaxEnt), minimum distance (minDistance), support vector machine (SVM), and random forest (RF), without extensive hyperparameter tuning. Additionally, ten different scenarios based on various band combinations of S-2 data were used as input for running the ML models. The LC classification was performed using 2759 sample points, with 70% for training and 30% for validation. The results indicate that the RF algorithm outperformed all other classifiers under scenario S1 (using 10 bands), achieving an overall accuracy (OA) of 0.79 and a kappa coefficient of 0.76. The final RF-based LC mapping shows the following percentage distribution: barren land (46.7%), snow cover (22.9%), glacier (7.9%), grasses (7.2%), water (4.7%), wetland (2.9%), built-up (2.7%), agriculture (1.9%), and forest (1.2%). It is suggested that the best identified RF classifier within the GEE environment should be used for advanced multi-source data image classification with hyperparameter tuning to increase OA. Additionally, it is suggested to build the capacity of various stakeholders in GB for better monitoring of LC changes and resource management using geospatial big data.
Amin et al. (Fri,) studied this question.