Gendering digital labor: work and family digital communication across 29 countries

With rapid digitalization, people increasingly use information and communication technologies (ICTs). Analyzing European Social Survey data across 29 countries, we address an under-researched question: how is the labor of using ICTs for digital communication gendered across the domains of work and family? Using latent profile analysis, we identify five profiles of work-family digital communication – dual-medium (most prevalent), dual-low, high work-only, dual-high, and high family-only (least prevalent) – with notable gender differences. Women are less likely than men to have high work-only but are more likely to have high family-only and dual-high work-family digital communication. Multilevel models reveal that among those with better digital literacy and those who work from home more often, there are wider gender gaps whereby women are more likely than men to juggle dual-medium work-family digital communication. In countries where people use the internet more intensely, women are more likely than men to specialize in family-only and juggle dual-high work-family digital communication. As digital literacy, working from home, and internet use intensity increase further, women may disproportionately take on family-related digital communication and also suffer from a 'digital double burden' in work-family life. Our findings highlight new forms of gender inequality in the division of labor in the digital era.