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The British Society for Parasitology (BSP) Spring Meeting was held between April 2 and 4, 2024, hosted by the University of Liverpool. To promote the flow of ideas, the scientific program was built around sessions that were accessible to parasitologists of all flavors and 'cut across' taxonomic boundaries. There was also a strong international presence among the speakers – 38% of invited speakers were from outside of the UK – and especially from those countries that are the foci of parasitological diseases we study, to better represent their experience in our research. Besides these guiding principles, the Spring Meeting expressed the values of the BSP by giving opportunities to young people – 44% of talks were given by early-career researchers – and by progressing the interaction between professional parasitology and wider society, for example, with a workshop on inclusivity. In this TrendsTalk, we invited the organizers to describe some key highlights of this annual celebration of parasitological progress in Britain and across the world. Andrew P. Jackson Fatima Ahmed Lois Bent Guilleary Deles Elly Lester Jude Ogunmola The meeting began with Plenary talks from two scientists whose careers are witness to the profound changes that parasitology can make to disease landscapes. Adrian Hill (University of Oxford) described the progress that has been made towards a robust malaria vaccine, presenting the evidence for the efficacy of the latest R21 vaccine and discussing the current plans for vaccine deployment and upscale. Sue Welburn (University of Edinburgh) explained how the Stamp Out Sleeping Sickness program had been successful in reducing human African trypanosomiasis, both in people and the livestock disease reservoir, and discussed the scientific and strategic requirements for disease elimination. The following scientific sessions were split between three streams: 'Form, function, and evolution', 'Disease complexity', and 'Control and elimination'. This stream included sessions such as 'Origins of parasitism', which dealt with comparative studies of parasites and their free-living relatives, and 'Life-cycle interfaces', which concerned molecular host interactions that mediate parasite development. It also included 'Antigenic variation', which compared molecular mechanisms of immune evasion across different parasites. Nina Papavasiliou (German Cancer Research Center) showed how antibody repertoires against individual variant surface glycoproteins (VSGs) in African trypanosomes are entrained to a restricted set of immunodominant epitopes, minimizing cross reactivity and facilitating prolonged immune evasion. Joana Correia Faria (University of York) presented a spatial interactome of the VSG expression site body, a nuclear compartment that controls VSG expression, using TurboID-mediated proximity labelling combined with quantitative proteomics. Nicolai Siegel (Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich) described a highly sensitive single-cell RNA-seq approach to VSG expression in Trypanosoma brucei that is revealing how antigen switches occur in response to DNA strand breaks, resulting in predictable hierarchies of antigen expression. The situation in African trypanosomes was contrasted with other parasites. Philippe Hauser (University of Lausanne) described the expression of msg antigens by the fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii during clinical infections, which suggest that msg genes switch via homologous recombination, leading to reassortment of non-expressed alleles, as well as gene mosaicism and subtelomeric rearrangement. By contrast, David Allred (University of Florida) argued that in situ transcriptional switching of ves sequences, which encode the variant erythrocyte surface antigens (VESAs) surface antigen in Babesia parasites, is mediated by segmental gene conversion, and is perhaps promoted by enrichment of ves sequences with oxidation-sensitive G-quadruplex sequences. Arnab Pain (King Abdullah University of Science and Technology) presented an essential Plasmodium-specific AP2 transcription factor in Plasmodium falciparum that binds to the promoters of genes controlling antigenic variation and is critical for var gene regulation. Finally, Kirk Deitsch (Cornell University) offered another perspective on P. falciparum antigenic variation, questioning the consensus that only a single var gene is expressed at any given time with evidence that mutually exclusive expression can be disrupted, leading to stable expression of multiple var genes, which has implications for the mechanisms underlying transcriptional switching and var gene choice. In the session on 'Cellular heterogeneity', Jim Collins (University of Texas Southwestern) described a population of ciliated neuronal cells in Schistosoma mansoni that act directly on female worms to trigger sexual development and egg-laying, while Gabriel Rinaldi (Aberystwyth University) also used single-cell RNA-seq data to identify cell populations involved in the S. mansoni sexually monomorphic–dimorphic transition. James Wasmuth (University of Calgary) used cell type markers to show how function is compartmentalized along the anterior–posterior axis of the nematode Heligmosomoides bakeri. Finally, Lara Lopez Escobar (University of Lisbon) considered the effect of motility on single-cell sequencing in T. brucei, arguing that that valuable information from highly motile cells may be lost during microfluidic-dependent setups. The 'Subcellular structure' session concerned new approaches to cell ultrastructure and began with Ross Waller (University of Cambridge) showing how localization of organelle proteins by isotope tagging (LOPIT) spatial proteomics, which determines the locations of thousands of proteins simultaneously, resolves the intracellular organelles and exported parasite proteins of P. falciparum-infected red blood cells. Macaulay Turner (University of Manchester) demonstrated glucose uptake by the bacillary band of Trichuris muris using stable isotope probing with the NanoSIMS platform. Michael Hammond (Czech Academy of Science) presented several novel kinetoplast components in trypanosomatids using alternative epitope labelling. Finally, Dominique Soldati (University of Geneva) gave a fascinating talk on the structure of the apical complex in Plasmodium and its role in rhoptry discharge, as revealed by ultrastructure-expansion microscopy and cryo-electron tomography of known and novel conoid proteins. The 'Molecular and cellular biology' session began with Lilach Sheiner (University of Glasgow) showing how Toxoplasma gondii and human mitoribosomes differ, including the unique recruitment of several transcription factors, revealing the idiosyncrasies of ribosome evolution. Elena Rodrigues (Crick Institute) described how Cryptosporidium makes use of an exported virulence factor to remodel host microvilli. Veronica Harris (University of St Andrews) presented her characterization of proteins involved in myo-inositol metabolism in Trypanosoma cruzi. While, in another trypanosomatid Blastocrithidia, Vyacheslav Yurchenko (University of Ostrava) has been investigating the impact of the stop codon reallocation on gene expression. The final talk by Anthony Walker (Kingston University) described protein kinase receptors that mediate human–schistosome interactions and their potential exploitation for drug development. The second stream of the meeting dealt with various types of parasite interaction. 'Parasite-immune interactions' session began with Paul Kaye (University of York) and the role of immune checkpoint molecules in the immunopathology of leishmaniasis. Using spatial transcriptomics combined with conventional immunohistology, he showed that cellular expression of immune checkpoint molecules can predict rate of cure. Sara Fresard (City University of New York) presented work to characterize all Trypanosome Lytic Factors (TLFs), which provide innate immunity to African trypanosomes in humans, to better understand TLF assembly and how TLFs might be used to create resistant transgenic cattle. Magdalena Radwanska (Ghent University) continued the focus on African trypanosomes, with a talk on B cell responses to controlling parasitemia and how the parasite disrupts these during infections. Finally, Santuza Maria Teixeira (University of Minas Gerais) described her work to develop T. cruzi and Leishmania vaccines, by creating attenuated parasite strains lacking prominent cell surface antigens that mediate virulence. The 'Organoids' session surveyed the increasing use of these stem-cell-derived, multicellular structures to mimic a specific tissue in parasitological research. David Smith (Moredun Institute) showed how infection of sheep challenged with Trichostrongylus colubriformis 'reprograms' the gene expression profile of duodenal organoids, and organoids derived from animals infected with gastrointestinal nematodes retain an epigenetic 'blueprint' of infection/immune status. Similarly, Eva Tydén (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences) demonstrated the utility of enteroids as experimental models by exposing them to infectious stage larvae of equine nematodes, which led to developmental and morphological changes in the enteroid epithelial cells. Still with nematodes, Maria Duque-Correa (University of Cambridge) discussed a cecal organoid model that reproduces whipworm (Trichuris spp.) infection in vitro, enhancing studies of whipworm invasion, colonization, and persistence in their mucosal niche. Matias Perez (University of Glasgow) used organoids to examine the role of a pan gastrointestinal nematode-secreted miRNA in reducing expansion of host mucosal cells, with potential therapeutic benefits in the repair of host gastrointestinal tissue. Mattie Pawlowic (University of Dundee) described the implementation of an authentic, human intestinal organoid model to observe the Cryptosporidium life cycle, facilitating the development of new anti-cryptosporidial therapeutics. Aiste Vitkauskaite (University of Galway) showed how co-culture of Fasciola hepatica with 3D liver cell spheroids sustains newly excysted juvenile parasites in vitro, and mimics in vivo interactions, enhancing our tools to investigate F. hepatica–host biology. To begin the 'Parasite–microbiome interactions' session, Cinzia Cantacessi (University of Cambridge) explored how parasites influence the gut microbiota by secreting antimicrobial peptides and how this might be exploited for parasite control. Ben Makepeace (University of Liverpool) described a novel Wolbachia endosymbiont and rodent-associated spirochaete discovered in metagenomic studies of chigger mites, and their implications for wildlife ecology and disease transmission. Adam Hart (Newcastle University) presented his research on antimicrobial peptides expressed by trichomonads to manipulate the gut microbiota, perhaps to influence trichomonad transmission. Grant Hughes (Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine) closed the session with his presentation of high-density, Anopheles-specific Wolbachia strains capable of inducing the cytoplasmic incompatibility phenotype, which are promising candidates for use in biocontrol of malaria. A session on 'Parasite wildlife ecology' began with an investigation by Amy Pederson (University of Edinburgh) of how improved nutrition of wood mice has diverse effects on immunity and recovery from parasitic infection. Jo Cable (Cardiff University) spoke on the adaptation of parasites to increasingly common plastic environments and how this affects the likelihood of disease outbreaks. Saudamini Venkatesan (University of Liverpool) examined whether woodland patch size and inter-connectivity affects tick density, nymph infection prevalence and Lyme disease hazards among key tick hosts such as rodents and deer. Finally, Mike Evans (University of Edinburgh) described nematode co-dynamics within wild Soay sheep, showing the seasonal epidemiological patterns in Nematodirius battus and Teladorsagia circumcincta that can be determined from fecal analysis. The Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DnDi) sponsored a double session on 'Drug development'. Sabine Specht (DnDi) gave a keynote talk on the foundation of drug development for filarial nematodes on a strong understanding of worm biology, for example, in the development of anti-Wolbachia drugs, how this is being implemented and the challenges that remain. Jessica Dagley (Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine) and Kenneth Pfarr (University of Bonn) continued the discussion of anti-Wolbachia drugs by examining the efficacy of azaquinazoline drugs and Corallopyronin A against dirofilariasis (dog heartworm) and human filariasis respectively. Shrilakshmi Hegde (Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine) discussed the therapeutic potential of inhibiting bioactive lipids that are associated with lymphatic filariasis, while Sewwandi Perera (Kingston University) explored the possibility of regulating stem cell proliferation as a drug target for Schistosoma mansoni. In the second part of the 'Drug development' session, Manu De Rycker (University of Dundee) demonstrated the use of artificial intelligence to evaluate various T. cruzi inhibitors and the use of the fragment molecular orbital method, a quantum mechanics technique, to investigate ligand–protein interactions. Andrew Maclean (University of Glasgow) discussed the structure of electron transfer chain proteins in the context of apicomplexan drug development, while Mukul Rawat (University of Dundee) argued that an inhibitor of the PfGCN5 bromodomain could also be developed as an antimalaria drug. Rachel Humann (University of St Andrews) showed that non-natural myristate analogues are crucial in lipidation of numerous T. brucei proteins, giving them therapeutic potential, while Sarah Davey (Aberystwyth University) focused on how histone-modifying enzyme (HME) inhibitors could be used to kill F. hepatica. A session on 'Helminth epidemiology' began with Janelisa Musaya (Malawi Liverpool Wellcome) surveying the disease setting of zoonotic schistosomiasis in Malawi, including the influence of human behavior and distance to water bodies on transmission, and the lessons learned from recent mass drug administration. The focus on schistosomiasis in Malawi continued with Alexandra Juhasz (Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine) who described efforts to evaluate the effect of drug treatments in relation to infection exposure by monitoring parasite prevalence in bovine feces and carcasses, as well as GPS tracking of cattle herds. Lydia Trippler (Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute) took a further perspective on schistosome epidemiology, arguing that a surveillance response might be as effective as mass drug administration in a disease elimination setting if cheap and sensitive point-of-care diagnostic tests are available and if prevalence in well understood. Poppy Lamberton (University of Glasgow) spoke about the impact of S. mansoni on liver morbidity and health-related quality of life in endemic regions of Uganda, showing that different pathologies had distinct age-profiles and that symptom severity and socioeconomic status were better markers of health-related quality of life than infection intensity. Gavin Wright (University of York) opened the 'Veterinary vaccines' session with a talk on recombinant antigens in the animal trypanosomes Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma vivax, which induce long-lasting protection, and describing ongoing efforts to develop livestock infection models to test these subunit vaccines. Alasdair Nisbet (Moredun Institute) presented a prototype recombinant subunit vaccine against the endemic gastrointestinal nematode T. circumcincta, which reduces worm burdens significantly, and discussed ongoing work to develop novel delivery systems to reduce variability and target common protective antigens from multiple gastrointestinal nematodes with a multivalent vaccine. Alexandra Correia (University of Porto) described how mucosal immunization with Neospora caninum membrane proteins successfully protects challenged mice, and discussed her work to translate this into cattle, showing that immunization induced parasite-specific humoral and cellular immunity and reduced disease. Damer Blake (Royal Veterinary College) gave an overview of the status of recombinant subunit vaccines against Eimeria, emphasizing the need for vaccines to be delivered using cost-effective and scalable approaches that meet the ethical and legislative standards of the poultry industry. The 'Innovation in vector control' session featured Marianne Sinka (University of Oxford), who presented successful field trials of 'Humbug', an acoustic mosquito sensor that uses a budget smartphone to detect and identify mosquito vectors during the night, which offers cheap and standardized long-term vector surveillance over previously unattainable spatial and temporal ranges. Noting that age is the most important factor in vectorial capacity, Mauro Pazmino (University of Glasgow) presented infrared spectroscopy (IRS) with machine learning (ML) models for determining the age of malaria vectors across different physical conditions and ecological settings. Eric Ochomo (Kenya Medical Research Institute) described his research focusing on improving vector surveillance and evaluating novel control tools and gave an up-to-date assessment of the vector control situation in malaria-endemic regions of Kenya. Finally, Andrew Hope (Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine) described the success of 'Tiny Targets', a range of insecticide-impregnated baits to kill riverine tsetse flies that transmit human African trypanosomiasis. He showed how these tiny targets reduce tsetse populations by >80% at a lower cost than traditional vector control and, as part of integrated disease control, played a significant role in eliminating disease transmission in Côte d'Ivoire and Uganda. The Spring Meeting brought colleagues together to consider the contemporary ideas and techniques that preoccupy parasitology in 2024; it closed with a celebration of outstanding work by two BSP medalists. The BSP President's Medal was awarded to Juan Quintana (University of Manchester) for his work using trypanosome infection to understand brain function, while Andy Fenton (University of Liverpool) spoke about the complex ecology of multihost/multiparasite systems to mark his award of the BSP Wright Medal for his substantial contribution to parasitology.
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