Challenges and Recent Advances in Modeling and Simulation of Geothermal Systems

The use of geothermal resources for electricity generation began in Larderello, Italy, in 1904 with an experimental generator producing 10 kilowatts of electricity (kWe) (Keller Pambudi & Ulfa, 2024). Initially, the geothermal sector mainly relied on steam from high-temperature sources above 150 °C. However, technological advancements allowed for the utilization of lower temperature resources at 90 °C. This was made possible thanks to using organic working fluids instead of water in the organic Rankine cycle process to improve efficiency. These are often integrated into district heating projects, expanding the range and effectiveness of energy applications. However, the optimal and flexible design of such systems under uncertainties of the future energy markets remains challenging (Wieland et al., 2023).