A scoping review of women’s capacity-building initiatives in low- and middle-income countries examining design, implementation, and barriers for sustainable development

Gender inequality continues to limit women’s economic participation and health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), undermining progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being). Capacity-building interventions—such as financial, vocational, digital, and community-based programs—are widely promoted to advance women’s empowerment; yet evidence on their design, delivery, and sustainability remains fragmented. This review mapped existing intervention types, implementation strategies, and participation barriers affecting women in LMICs. Following Arksey and O’Malley’s framework, as enhanced by Levac et al. and Peters et al., a scoping review was conducted and reported in line with the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Six databases (Scopus, Web of Science, EMBASE, PubMed, ProQuest, EBSCOhost) were searched in April 2025 for English-language studies (2010–2025). Screening and data extraction were completed in Covidence by two independent reviewers. Data was summarised descriptively and through content analysis. Thirty studies met the inclusion criteria, with the majority originating from Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Mixed methods designs predominated. Seven intervention types were identified: microfinance and financial services (43%), vocational training (20%), multi-sectoral “mixed” models (20%), digital initiatives (7%), entrepreneurship (7%), political participation (3%), and cash-transfer programmes (3%). Interventions that combine financial access, skills training, and empowerment components have shown stronger and more sustainable outcomes. Barriers included gender norms, limited resources, and digital exclusion. Capacity-building programmes enhance women’s social and economic agencies and indirectly improve household and community health, contributing to multiple SDGs. However, financial inclusion alone is insufficient; integrated, gender-transformative, and context-specific models are needed to achieve lasting empowerment and health equity in LMICs. Findings provide evidence to strengthen policy design, resource allocation, and implementation strategies for women’s empowerment programs aligned with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.