Kwame Nkrumah and the Artistic Nation: A Cultural History of Ghana's First Republic with Emphasis on Music

Ghana’s first president, Kwame Nkrumah (19571966), believed that nation-building depended on cultural development. He advocated for a national culture based on indigenous customs as the cornerstone of Ghana’s identity and advancement rather than separating politics from culture or economy (Yorke, Amissah, deGraft-Yankson, and Essuman 2017; Fuller 2010; Botwe-Asamoah 2013).Nkrumah’s idea of the “African Personality” idea (Figs. 1–2), advocating for building the new country on the basis of the people’s own traditions and way of life, was essential to this vision (Amoh 2022; Bobie, Darkwah, and Gough 2021; Dei 2012). In actuality, this entailed utilizing Ghana’s artistic and cultural assets to promote pride, solidarity, and Pan-African awareness (Fig. 3).One of Nkrumah’s main tactics for achieving cultural autonomy was the establishment of institutions (Ghana News Agency 2009). In order to honor Ghana’s legacy and institutionalize the arts, his government launched a number of cultural organizations and initiatives in the early 1960s. Among the noteworthy initiatives were:Arts Council of Ghana (est. 1958)A national organization that is responsible for the organization and promotion of artistic activities and is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and Culture. The Arts Council organized events such as music and drama festivals to promote the performing arts throughout the nation.Ghana Museums and Monuments (National Museum)Established to conserve Ghanaian art and antiques on the brink of independence in March 1957. This demonstrated Nkrumah’s dedication to respecting tradition from the very beginning of self-government (Fig. 4).Institute of African Studies (est. 1961)This research institute, located at the University of Ghana, Legon, was established by Nkrumah as “the intellectual wing of the Pan-Africanist revolution” (Allman 2013). Reflecting Nkrumah’s conviction that academics and the arts must propel cultural revitalization, it housed schools of music, dance, theater, and archives to study African culture (Institute of African Studies n.d.) (Fig. 5).National Symphony Orchestra (est. 1959)The orchestra was established by Nkrumah’s order and directed by Philip Gbeho, who wrote Ghana’s national anthem. It combined Ghanaian music with Western classical instrumentation (National Theater of Ghana n.d.). The orchestra’s goals were to promote Ghana’s musical abilities internationally and create “Afro-classical” music, which combines African musical styles with Western classical methods (Fig. 6).Ghana Dance Ensemble (National Dance Company, est. 1962)Established through a partnership between the government’s Institute of Arts and Culture and the University of Ghana, this entity emerged as the premier ensemble representing Ghana’s rich dance and music heritage. The ensemble meticulously selected and cultivated skilled dancers from diverse cultural backgrounds, elevating traditional folkloric dances into sophisticated stage performances for audiences both locally and globally (Institute of African Studies n.d.) (Fig. 7).Ghana Film Corporation (est. 1964)A state film production unit to showcase African stories on screen and foster a native film industry. This coincided with Nkrumah’s use of media to spread cultural content and “African personality” ideals, including radio and the Ghana Television.Research Library on African AffairsNkrumah established this research and archival institution to aid in the study of African history and culture. In conjunction with the Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences, which was founded in 1959, it supplied intellectual support for cultural policy (Fig. 8).National artistic festivals were first held during Nkrumah’s rule, including the First National Festival of Music and Drama in July 1961. To promote indigenous culture in the public eye, Radio Ghana aired plays in regional languages (Twi, etc.) and a national choral singing competition during this event (Anderson n.d.).Nkrumah sought to “build Ghana’s nation-state based on its cultural inheritance” and transform cultural resources into instruments for the advancement of the country through these organizations and initiatives. Despite not being enshrined in a single document, his cultural strategy was evident in practice: support the arts to create a proud, cohesive national identity. The enduring impact of Nkrumah’s cultural blueprint was highlighted by the fact that succeeding Ghanaian governments kept referring to it—a postindependence cultural policy framework was even written by Prof. J.H. Nketia and accepted by UNESCO (Ghana News Agency 2009).As a medium for national pride and public instruction, music held a prominent place in Nkrumah’s cultural program. Independence was accompanied by highlife music, a syncretic style that combines jazz and urban elements with African rhythms. In the 1950s, bands such as Tempos, led by E.T. Mensah, established highlife as the music of contemporary urban Ghana (Fig. 9). Nkrumah saw that this vibrant, indigenous music had brought people together during the fight for freedom and could portray a unified Ghanaian culture despite racial divides (Doe 2020). In fact, E.T. Mensah’s “brilliant and creative blend of highlife and swing” was praised as “the optimistic sound-symbol of the early independence era throughout Africa.”Nkrumah aggressively pushed popular music as a means of fostering national development after he came to power. According to historian J. Collins (2010), Nkrumah’s administration established a government recording studio, produced a number of state-sponsored highlife bands and performance events and generously broadcast local music on the new television service and radio. Highlife bands performed at state events and went on official tours overseas, promoting Ghanaian culture globally. The Ramblers Dance Band recorded highlife songs like “Ghana-Guinea-Mali,” championing African unity, while guitar-band leader E.K. Nyame wrote songs applauding Nkrumah’s policies. Nkrumah also encouraged musicians to write songs that reflected his Pan-African socialist ideal. In addition to being a partial reward for musicians’ contributions to the independence movement, this extraordinary official support for popular music also resulted from Nkrumah’s realization that music could cut across tribal lines. Enjoyed by the Akans, Ga, Ewe, and other ethnic groups, highlife served as a perfect cultural adhesive for the new country and even as a pan-African ambassador art form.Nkrumah utilized formal institutions within the domains of art music and education. The National Symphony Orchestra, established in 1959, performed European classics and commissioned works by African composers, with the objective of fostering an indigenous symphonic tradition. Music education programs were similarly expanded; for example, the School of Music and Drama, part of the Institute of African Studies, involved scholars such as J.H. Kwabena Nketia to investigate Ghana’s musical traditions and create new curricula for musician training (Adinku 2000). Nkrumah’s support facilitated Nketia’s publication of works like Folk Songs of Ghana (1959), which Nkrumah commended as an “admirable” study, and allowed him to manage the documentation of traditional songs for future reference.In 1960, after independence, President Nkrumah advocated for the formation of a formal Ghana Musicians Union, acknowledging the influence of music in promoting national development (Pourbaix n.d.) (Fig. 10). Reports indicate that the union of 1960-1966, formed from the coalition of the 1950s, comprised approximately 2,000 members and was supported by Nkrumah (Collins 2024). In the early 1960s, the Ghana Association of Musicians was established as an officially recognized organization, signifying a significant evolution of the notion compared to the informal coalition of performers exploring cooperation in the 1950s. These initial partnerships, however, were ephemeral. Subsequent to Nkrumah’s ousting in 1966, both the musicians’ association and its successor from the 1960s disbanded. The Ghana Association of Musicians in the 1950s was a nascent, provisional coalition that initiated the collective organization of Ghanaian musicians, subsequently leading to the establishment of the more enduring Musicians Union of Ghana (MUSIGA) in 1975.The individual artists and cultural figures that Nkrumah supported and worked with while in office are another way to gauge his influence on the arts. Numerous people became symbols of Ghanaian culture:E.T. Mensah (1919-1996)The Tempos dance band, directed by the renowned “King of Highlife,” Mensah, was incredibly famous in the 1950s (Fig. 11). His lively song “Ghana Freedom” became an unofficial independence anthem. Nkrumah frequently attended CPP rallies and state functions where E.T. Mensah and his band played. Using highlife as a diplomatic representation of African modernity, Nkrumah’s government asked The Tempos to perform on worldwide tours and during state visits after realizing Mensah’s pan-African appeal (Collins 2010). Mensah even wrote a praise song called “Kwame Nkrumah” in honor of the president, which earned him national recognition, demonstrating the mutual regard between the two. Highlife performers like Mensah received support and recognition under Nkrumah that had never been seen by African pop artists before.Ephraim Amu (1899-1995)Long before independence, Amu, a composer, music educator, and nationalist, promoted the use of African languages and melodies in art music. (Fig. 12) His patriotic songs, including “Yεn Ara Asase Ni” (Our Own Land), evoked pride in Ghana’s heritage through the utilization of traditional rhythms and Akan lyrics. Amu was highly regarded by Nkrumah for “developing and establishing a Ghanaian style of music” that rekindled interest in native sounds. Nkrumah highlighted Amu’s work as an example of the African cultural renaissance in his address, “The African Genius,” saying, “I may mention here Ephraim Amu whose work has created and established a Ghanaian style of music and revived an appreciation for it” (Nkrumah 1963: 5). Amu was active in cultural and music education initiatives throughout Nkrumah’s rule. For example, he provided cultural policy advice and taught at the School of Music and Drama. Some of Amu’s songs became standard fare at official occasions, signifying the new nation’s cultural essence, and Nkrumah’s public endorsement and backing helped Amu’s folk-inspired art music achieve national renown.J.H. Kwabena Nketia (1921-2019)Another important person empowered by Nkrumah was Nketia, a renowned ethnomusicologist and composer (Fig. 13). Following independence, Nkrumah named Nketia to head the music department of the Institute of African Studies and the newly established School of Music and Drama. Nketia tackled these assignments by fusing performance and study. Nketia was given the task of formalizing Ghana’s cultural policy; he wrote a groundbreaking document that served as a model for UNESCO later on, including strategies for modernizing and conserving indigenous arts. Nketia wrote choral pieces that combined Western harmonies and African rhythms, published studies such as Folk Songs of Ghana (Jones 1963, 1964) and gathered hundreds of folk songs under Nkrumah’s patronage. In addition, he educated music teachers and assisted in founding the National Choir. As the stewards of Ghana’s cultural memory and inventiveness, Nkrumah placed a great importance on Nketia’s knowledge and made sure that the country’s arts had solid academic and indigenous roots.Philip Gbeho (1904-1976)Most famously, Gbeho, a violinist and composer, composed Ghana’s national anthem in 1957 (Fig. 14). 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