Equity in ICT-Based Coproduction: Evidence from San Francisco

Smart cities increasingly rely on ICT-based coproduction, in which governments use digital platforms to engage citizens in reporting problems and requesting public services. While this model is often assumed to enhance inclusivity, it also raises equity concerns, as opportunities for engagement and experiences with coproduction may vary systematically across social groups. Existing research on ICT-enabled coproduction has focused primarily on participation disparities, offering mixed evidence and often overlooking inequities in earlier and later stages of engagement. Drawing on individual-level data from the San Francisco City Survey, this study examines equity across multiple stages of coproduction—including awareness of opportunities, participation, channel choice, and satisfaction—and across multiple dimensions of equity , encompassing procedural and experiential outcome. The findings show that inequities emerge at different stages for different groups, highlighting the need for ICT-based coproduction systems that address equity beyond participation alone.