Sex differences in empathy and related capacities.

In this article, the literature on sex differences in empathy (denned as vicarious affective responding to the emotional state of another) and related capacities (affective role taking and decoding of nonverbal cues) was reviewed. The literature was organized and discussed according to method used to assess empathy and affective role taking. Where appropriate, meta-analyses were also computed. In general, sex differences in empathy were a function of the methods used to assess empathy. There was a large sex difference favoring women when the measure of empathy was self-report scales; moderate differences (favoring females) were found for reflexive crying and self-report measures in laboratory situations; and no sex differences were evident when the measure of empathy was either physiological or unobtrusive observations of nonverbal reactions to another's emotional state. Moreover, few sex differences were found for children's affective role taking and decoding abilities. Several possible explanations for the pattern of findings are discussed. Among the characteristics that people attribute more frequently to females than to males is the tendency to empathize. This stereotypic perception has most likely been derived from the broader belief that females are more nurturant and interpersonally oriented than are males—a stereotype that itself is a natural consequence of traditional feminine and masculine roles. Sociological and psychological theorists concerned with social behavior generally have not questioned the veracity of sex-role stereotypes related to empathic reactions. In fact, their conceptualizations are entirely consistent with the notion that females are the more empathic sex. For example, sociologists such as Parsons and Bales (1955) have attributed differences in males' and females' behaviors to variations in the traditional roles of the two sexes. According to Parsons and Bales, in the family unit men typically assume an instrumental role; that is, they serve as a liaison between the family and society and see that the tasks needed for