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The rising prevalence of bone diseases in an aging population underscores the urgent need for innovative and clinically translatable solutions in bone tissue engineering. While significant progress has been made in refining the chemical properties of biomaterials, the structural design of scaffolds-a critical determinant of repair success-remains comparatively underexplored. Structural parameters such as porosity, pore size, and interconnectivity are not only essential for achieving mechanical stability but also pivotal in regulating biological processes, including vascularization, osteogenesis, and immune modulation. This review systematically categorizes scaffold architectures documented in the literature and highlights how these design parameters can be optimized to enhance bone regeneration. Advanced fabrication technologies, particularly 3D printing, are emphasized for their transformative potential in creating precise, biomimetic scaffolds that align with the complex functional demands of native bone. Furthermore, this work synthesizes diverse findings to provide a comprehensive framework for designing next-generation scaffolds. By bridging the gap between structural innovation and clinical application, this review delivers actionable strategies and a strategic roadmap for advancing the field toward improved clinical outcomes and transformative breakthroughs in regenerative medicine.
Huang et al. (Fri,) studied this question.