Academic self-handicapping and achievement: A meta-analysis.

Self-handicapping represents a frequently used strategy for regulating the threat to self-esteem elicited by the fear of failing in academic achievement settings. Several studies have documented negative associations between self-handicapping and different educational outcomes, inter alia academic achievement. However, studies on the relation between self-handicapping and academic achievement have yielded heterogeneous results, indicating the need to conduct meta-analytic investigations and to examine the relevance of several potential moderator variables. This meta-analysis integrates the results of 36 field studies with 49 independent effect sizes (N = 25,550). A random effects model revealed a mean effect size between self-handicapping and academic achievement of r = −.23 (p < .001, range: r = −.46 to r = .02). Moreover, moderator analyses showed that the type of self-handicapping scale, the school type (elementary, middle, high school, university), the level of mastery goals in the sample, and the reliability of the self-handicapping scale considerably influenced the mean correlation. Based on our findings, we conclude that educational interventions to enhance academic achievement should additionally focus on preventing self-handicapping.