The stability challenges associated with the rock mass in grotto temples are significant and stem from a prolonged history of excavation, environmental factors, and anthropogenic activities. Over centuries, and in some cases millennia, both physical and chemical processes have exacerbated these challenges. However, due to the diverse variations in the mechanisms of disease formation, influencing factors, material properties, and structural characteristics, an integrated evaluation system has not been established. This study integrates drone photogrammetry, ground-based laser scanning, and fundamental engineering geological surveys to propose a comprehensive framework for assessing the seismic stability of Cave 165 at North Grotto Temple. The results reveal key areas with significant dynamic responses, particularly weak sections of the west wall and the roof, which are at highest risk of instability. Under the influence of the Minle earthquake, the free surfaces and the roof are affected by “top amplification effect” and “free-surface effect.” During 4–6 seconds of seismic input, maximum acceleration and displacement amplification factors reach 25.503 and 2.352, respectively, identifying these locations as zones with the highest propensity for instability of the cave. With increasing seismic intensity, the dynamic responses of roof and free surfaces are amplified by more than 70%. This research not only provides theoretical and temporal foundations for the protection, reinforcement, and monitoring of Cave 165 based on traditional geological techniques, but also highlights the potential for embedding this framework into spatial intelligence platforms for future grotto sites. This may facilitate the realization of AI-aided risk prediction and digital dual management regimes, aiming for intelligent and adaptive conservation.
Gu et al. (Sat,) studied this question.