Strategies for Teaching Exceptional Children in Inclusive Settings.

AbstractHosts can defend themselves against parasites either by preventing or limiting infections (resistance) or by limiting parasite-induced damage (tolerance). However, it remains underexplored how these defense types vary over host development with shifting patterns of resource allocation priorities. Here, we studied the role played by developmental stage in resistance and tolerance in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). This anadromous fish has distinct life stages related to living in freshwater and seawater. We experimentally exposed 1-year-old salmon, either at the freshwater stage or at the stage transitioning to the marine phase, to the trematode Diplostomum pseudospathaceum. Using 56 pedigreed families and multivariate animal models, we show that developmental transition is associated with reduced resistance but does not affect tolerance. Furthermore, by comparing tolerance slopes (host fitness against parasite load) based on additive genetic effects among infected and unexposed control relatives, we observed that the slopes can be largely independent of the infection, that is, they may not reflect tolerance. Together, our results suggest that the relative importance of different defense types may vary with host development and emphasize the importance of including control treatments for more confident interpretations of tolerance estimates.