A Reinterpretation of Chosŏn-Qing Foreign Relations through an Analysis of Chosŏn and Later Jin Bilateral Relations

Abstract Existing research tends to treat the transition from Chosŏn-Ming relations to Chosŏn-Qing relations as an uninterrupted process and the two relations as equivalent to each other. This article will show, from Chosŏn's perspective, how relations between Chosŏn and Later Jin evolved between 1605 and 1636 and later influenced Chosŏn-Qing relations. While Chosŏn initially treated Later Jin as barbarians and not as an official state, after the establishment of Later Jin, equal interstate relations were established through the exchange of royal letters (kuksŏ 國書) and envoys (sinsa 信使) during the years 1627–29. Negotiations continued until the Second Manchu Invasion in 1636, during which time interactions with the Ming continued as usual but discussions with Later Jin through royal letters established bilateral relations. After 1636 and the establishment of the Qing dynasty, diplomatic documents followed the same format as Chosŏn-Ming relations, but Chosŏn still considered the Qing as barbarians and continued to express their loyalty to the Ming through covert actions affirming the Ming as the Heavenly Dynasty. Thus, Chosŏn-Ming relations and Chosŏn-Qing relations were qualitatively different and cannot be considered the same.