The "Horizontal Effect" of Constitutional Rights

INTRODUCTION 388 I. VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL EFFECT OF INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS: THE SPECTRUM OF POSITIONS IN COMPARATIVE CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 393 A. The Two Poles 394 B. Indirect Horizontal Effect 398 II. RECONCEIVING THE CONSTITUTIONAL POSITION IN THE U N ITED STATES 411 A. The State Action Doctrine 412 B. Transcending the State Action Doctrine 414 C. Transcending Versus Refocusing the State Action Inquiry ..... 422 D Application to the Leading Cases . 429 E. Towards a Normative Defense . 431 III. A REVISED SPECTRUM OF POSITIONS ON THE SCOPE OF CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS 434 IV. WHICH LAWS REGULATING RELATIONS BETWEEN PRIVATE ACTORS ARE UNCONSTITUTIONAL? . 437 A. General Considerations 437 B. The Impact of Specific Constitutional Rights on Private Actors .....439 1. Free Speech 440 2. Equal Protection 446 C. How the Impact of the Equal Protection Clause on Private Actors Might Be Substantially Increased 455 C O N CLU SIO N 458