Environmental influences on historical monuments: a multi-analytical characterization of degradation materials

div pThe Minoan Palace of Knossos and the Venetian coastal fortress #8220;Rocca a mare#8221; (Koules), located in Heraklion, Crete, Greece, are two important monuments for the history of mankind particularly vulnerable to environmental conditions, since they are located in an island subjected to strong variations in humidity and, as in the case of the Venetian fortress, in direct contact with sea water. In this type of surrounding environment, the formation of salt efflorescence as well as various other soluble salts crusts is a common situation. They occur according to the existing solubilization and crystallization conditions and can happen either in exterior or interior areas of the monuments. Their presence may stimulate further degradation, either due to the chemical dissolution of the substrate materials or due to the mechanical actions created by the formation of crystals, which may result in the decay of the substrate./p pA set of samples from both monuments were analysed using various laboratory (ex-situ) analytical methods such as optical microscopy (OM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy and Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS). In-situ measurements using portable Raman and LIBS instruments were also performed. The comparative results from ex-situ analysis and in-situ measurements will be presented with emphasis to the chemical composition of the crusts and their origin. Results indicate that observed stalactites and salt efflorescence are directly related to the type of supporting material and the conditions of the surrounding environment. In general, the formation of crusts and salts are due to processes of alteration of the supporting material while the high impact of sea salt on the formation of the efflorescence at the Venetian coastal fortress was also confirmed./p p#160;/p p1 This work was supported by the European Union#8217;s Framework Programme for Research and Innovation HORIZON 2020 under Grant Agreement 700395 project HERACLES./p pAcknowledgment to the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) UID/EAT/00729/2013 and EAT/00729-3 by FEDER funds through the COMPETE 2020 Programme and National Funds through FCT#8212;Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology under the project number POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007688, Reference UID/CTM/50025/2013 NOVA.ID.FCT, and the PhD Scholarship SFRH/BD/145308/2019./p /div