Jupiter's Composition Suggests its Core Assembled Exterior to the N2 Snowline

Abstract Jupiter's atmosphere is enriched in C, N, S, P, Ar, Kr, and Xe with respect to solar abundances by a factor of ∼3. Gas giant envelopes are mainly enriched through the dissolution of solids in the atmosphere, and this constant enrichment factor is puzzling since several of the above elements are not expected to have been in the solid phase in Jupiter's feeding zone; most seriously, Ar and the main carrier of N, N 2 , only condense at the very low temperatures, 21–26 K, associated with the outer solar nebula. We propose that a plausible solution to the enigma of Jupiter's uniform enrichment pattern is that Jupiter's core formed exterior to the N 2 and Ar snowlines, beyond 30 au, resulting in a solar composition core in all volatiles heavier than Ne. During envelope accretion and planetesimal bombardment, some of the core mixed in with the envelope, causing the observed enrichment pattern. We show that this scenario naturally produces the observed atmosphere composition, even with substantial pollution from N-poor pebble and planetesimal accretion in Jupiter's final feeding zone. We note that giant core formation at large nebular radii is consistent with recent models of gas giant core formation through pebble accretion, which requires the core to form exterior to Jupiter's current location to counter rapid inward migration during the core and envelope formation process. If this scenario is common, gas giant core formation may account for many of the gaps observed in protoplanetary disks between 10 s and 100 au.