This article argues that the systematic looting and illicit trafficking of cultural heritage are not ancillary harms or opportunistic crimes but deliberate assaults on collective memory, identity, and human dignity – harms that can occur in both war and peace and that routinely produce psychological, social, economic, and political injury far beyond mere pecuniary loss. While international law now provides comparatively strong, criminalized protection for cultural heritage during armed conflict, peacetime frameworks (notably the 1970 UNESCO and 1995 UNIDROIT Conventions) remain largely remedial and cooperative, focused on restitution rather than criminal accountability. This enforcement gap permits transnational trafficking networks and complicit market actors, including museums, auction houses, and private collectors, to operate with effective impunity. Drawing on recent developments in international criminal jurisprudence and policy, including the ICC Office of the Prosecutor’s Cultural Heritage Policy, the article demonstrates that large-scale, organized trafficking routinely produces the severe, widespread, and long-lasting harms contemplated by Article 7(1)(k) of the Rome Statute. It shows how illicit excavation and market-driven pillage destroy archaeological context, sever communities from intergenerational memory, and inflict serious injury to mental and social health – harms of a character and gravity comparable to other international crimes. The article proposes that recognizing systematic cultural-heritage trafficking as an ‘other inhumane act’ within the crimes against humanity framework would close a critical accountability gap and affirm that the exploitation of shared cultural heritage constitutes conduct of the gravest international concern. Ultimately, it argues that classifying peacetime trafficking as a crime against humanity would provide a crucial legal tool for source nations to safeguard humanity’s shared cultural legacy.
Anosh Naderi (Tue,) studied this question.