Both TNF-α and TGF-β1 enhanced the immunomodulatory effects of EVs, with TGF-β1 showing a stronger capacity to promote chondrocyte proliferation and ECM synthesis. The miR-378a-3p/SIRPα axis was identified as a key mechanism underlying the protective effects of both α-EVs and β-EVs. This study provides valuable insights into optimizing EVs-based regenerative strategies to regulate the local inflammatory microenvironment and promote the regeneration of engineered tissues.
Wang et al. (Sat,) studied this question.