Human presence exerts sex-biased effects on the activity budgets of temple rhesus macaques in the Pashupatinath Area, Nepal

Understanding how nonhuman primates adjust their behavior in human-dominated environments is essential for effective urban wildlife management. This study examined the daily activity budgets of urban rhesus macaques in the Pashupatinath Temple area of Kathmandu, Nepal, comparing groups exposed to high (HAP) and low anthropogenic pressure (LAP). Behavioral data were collected using focal animal sampling and scan sampling methods. Resting/sitting and allogrooming were the most frequently observed activities of the macaques in both study blocks. However, feeding/foraging differed significantly between the blocks, occurring more frequently in HAP than in LAP. Sex-based differences in behavior were noted between the groups for resting, grooming, movement, and aggression, but not for feeding. Notably, the increased presence of visitors was negatively associated with grooming behavior, particularly among females (Mann-Whitney U = 12464, p < 0.05). An increased number of visitors around the focal subjects in HAP was associated with a decrease in grooming behavior (ρ = -0.2, p < 0.01), which may reflect the combined influence of food provisioning and visitor disturbance (e.g. teasing, threatening behavior) observed at the site. Reduced grooming in areas with high human activity can weaken social bonds, heighten stress, and undermine group cohesion, reducing macaques' social stability and resilience. These findings highlighted nonhuman primate behavior in human-dominated environment, emphasizing the need for effective urban management strategies.