Motivations Behind the Spread of Molded Clay Figurines (模印泥像) in the 7th-Century Tang Dynasty: A Critical Reassessment of Xuanzang’s (玄奘) Role and the Emergence of New Agents

This study reexamines the emergence and diffusion of molded clay figurines (模印泥像) in the late 7th-century Tang dynasty, based on newly discovered materials and a critical review of existing textual sources. These figurines—created by pressing clay into pre-formed molds—originated from India and gained widespread popularity in and around the Tang capital of Chang'an beginning in the latter half of the 7th century. Previous scholarship has largely attributed the popularity of molded clay figurines to the famous monk Xuanzang, who returned from India in 645. This view was primarily based on the discovery of inscribed molded figurines near Ci'en Temple, where Xuanzang was active, and on textual references noting that he created numerous clay images associated with the “Nineteen Koṭis” (shi juzhi suxiang, 十俱胝塑像). However, a comprehensive reexamination of the relevant sources reveals that these images were first produced not at Ci'en Temple but at Yuhua Temple, where Xuanzang spent the final years of his life. In fact, most of his known image-making activities—including the production of painted images (juzhi huaxiang, 俱胝畫像), Śākyamuni statues, and representations of the Buddha’s footprints—took place in Yuhua Temple, rather than in central Chang'an. This raises a critical question: if not Xuanzang, then who drove the production and spread of moyin nixiang in Chang'an? This paper brings new attention to the epitaph of Ji Zongchi (姬總持), the wet nurse of Emperor Gaozong, which reveals that she received molded image molds (xiangyin, 像印) from the emperor, originally crafted by a monk from the Western Regions. It also considers the possibility that four Buddhist seals brought back from Bodh Gaya in 660 by Wang Xuance were later disseminated under imperial order through the illustrated version of the Record of the Western Regions (Xiyu zhi tu, 西域志圖), commissioned by the court. These two cases share a crucial element: imperial patronage. Although the emperor’s role may not have been direct, the evidence strongly suggests that the appearance and popularity of molded clay figurines were closely tied to figures active within the royal court. In other words, the phenomenon was shaped not only by Xuanzang but also by a multilayered network of actors including the emperor, monks from the Western Regions, and various individuals associated with the inner court. This study thus proposes a more nuanced understanding of the cultural forces behind the visual production of devotional images in 7th-century Tang China.