Accurate credit risk assessment for small firms and farmers is crucial for financial stability and inclusion; however, many models still rely on binary default labels, overlooking the continuum of borrower vulnerability. To address this, we propose Transformer–LightGBM–Stacked Logistic Regression (TL-StackLR), a hybrid stacking framework for multi-class loan default prediction. The framework combines three learners: a Feature Tokenizer Transformer (FT-Transformer) for feature interactions, LightGBM for non-linear pattern recognition, and a stacked LR meta-learner for calibrated probability fusion. We transform binary labels into three risk tiers, Low, Medium, and High, based on quantile-based stratification of default probabilities, aligning the model with real-world risk management. Evaluated on datasets from 3045 firms and 2044 farmers in China, TL-StackLR achieves state-of-the-art ROC-AUC scores of 0.986 (firms) and 0.972 (farmers), with superior calibration and discrimination across all risk classes, outperforming all standalone and partial-hybrid benchmarks. The framework provides SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) interpretability, showing how key risk drivers, such as income, industry experience, and mortgage score for firms and loan purpose, Engel coefficient, and income for farmers, influence risk tiers. This transparency transforms TL-StackLR into a decision-support tool, enabling targeted interventions for inclusive lending, thus offering a practical foundation for equitable credit risk management.
Abbas et al. (Sun,) studied this question.