ABSTRACT The roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ) is a primary prey species for large carnivores and an important game species for hunters. Consequently, this species exhibits distinct responses to minimise exposure to both humans and predators. While human activity follows predictable patterns, eliciting consistent roe deer responses, wolf ( Canis lupus ) predation is less predictable, potentially leading to different risk‐mitigation strategies. Over a two‐year study (December 2020–November 2022), we collected roe deer behavioural data using camera traps and direct observations across seven study areas in north‐western Italy. These areas varied in wolf presence, landscape composition and species management practices. We analysed activity budgets with a focus on vigilance. Our results indicate that vigilance behaviour varied significantly across landscapes, being lower in natural compared to modified habitats, suggesting that habitat composition strongly influences roe deer risk perception. Furthermore, vigilance decreased with increasing group size, supporting the group‐size effect hypothesis in reducing individual alertness. Interestingly, roe deer vigilance behaviour was not significantly influenced by stable wolf presence, suggesting that they may prioritise spatial avoidance over increased vigilance as an antipredator strategy. Overall, our results highlight the complex interplay between human disturbance and predation risk, underscoring the importance of behavioural flexibility in roe deer survival strategies in human‐modified landscapes.
Torretta et al. (Tue,) studied this question.