Influence of soluble–insoluble rock interfaces on water and mud inrush mechanisms in water-rich tunnels: Insights from CFD–DEM coupled simulations

Key Points

• Inrush mechanisms are significantly influenced by the interaction between soluble and insoluble rock interfaces.
• Key findings indicate that changes in water and mud flow dynamics are closely related to the nature of rock interfaces.
• Assessment using CFD–DEM coupled simulations reveals critical insights into fluid behavior in tunnels.
• The findings underline the complexity of water and mud dynamics in such environments, warranting further investigation.