"background": "Road infrastructure reconstruction in post-conflict regions is a critical development activity, yet its associated embodied carbon emissions remain largely unquantified, particularly in fragile states with nascent environmental governance. ", "purpose and objectives": "This study aims to quantify the cradle-to-site embodied carbon of a major national road reconstruction programme, identifying the most emission-intensive life cycle stages and materials to inform low-carbon construction strategies. ", "methodology": "A process-based life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted, modelling material production, transport, and construction phases. Primary data were collected from project bills of quantities and logistics records. Emissions were calculated using E = (Mi \ EFi) + (T{j \ Dj \ EFj), where Mi is material mass, EFi is emission factor, Tj is transport type, Dj is distance, and EFj is transport emission factor. Uncertainty was propagated using Monte Carlo simulation. ", "findings": "Material production, dominated by cement and steel, accounted for 78% of total embodied carbon (95% CI: 74–82%). The transport of construction materials over long international supply chains contributed a further 19%. Sensitivity analysis indicated that sourcing cement regionally could reduce total emissions by an estimated 14%. ", "conclusion": "The embodied carbon of road reconstruction is substantial and heavily concentrated in the material production phase. Current reliance on imported materials significantly inflates the carbon footprint. ", "recommendations": "Policymakers and engineers should prioritise low-carbon material specifications and develop regional material supply chains. Environmental product declarations should be mandated in procurement. ", "key words": "embodied carbon, life cycle assessment, road infrastructure, sustainable construction, post-conflict development", "contribution statement": "This paper provides the first quantitative LCA of embodied carbon for a large-scale infrastructure programme in the country, establishing a benchmark
Deng et al. (Mon,) studied this question.