This study investigated the relationship between experiential learning, vicarious learning, and the development of higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) among undergraduate students enrolled in business education programmes in Federal Universities in South-South Nigeria. With increasing demands for entrepreneurial competence and critical thinking in the 21st-century workplace, the study sought to identify the extent to which active and observational learning approaches influence students’ ability to think analytically, evaluate critically, and apply knowledge creatively. A correlational survey research design was adopted. The study sampled 151 business education lecturers (comprising 43 males and 108 females), selected through simple random sampling from three Federal Universities. Data were collected using self-constructed, four-point Likert scale questionnaires with high internal consistency, as determined by Cronbach’s alpha coefficients: 0.93 for experiential learning, 0.92 for vicarious learning, and 0.96 for HOTS. Statistical analysis was carried out using the bivariate correlation matrix and Fisher-Z transformation to test for gender differences in the relationships between the learning approaches and HOTS. The findings revealed a statistically significant difference in the relationship between experiential learning and the development of HOTS across gender. Specifically, male and female lecturers reported differing levels of correlation, indicating a gender-based variation in how experiential learning supports higher-order thinking. Conversely, no significant gender difference was found in the relationship between vicarious learning and HOTS, suggesting that observational learning strategies have a uniformly positive effect across genders. These results highlight the need for educators and administrators in business education programmes to integrate and promote learning environments that foster both experiential and vicarious learning opportunities. Such an approach is essential not only for cultivating students' critical and reflective capacities but also for preparing them for dynamic and complex entrepreneurial roles after graduation. The study underscores the imperative to consider gender dynamics in instructional planning and encourages the continuous professional development of educators in the use of diverse pedagogical strategies that enhance students’ cognitive development.
Emily Grace Harrison (Thu,) studied this question.