Virtual reality is increasingly adopted in education for its potential to create immersive, interactive learning experiences. Among various instructional approaches, gamification has emerged as a promising strategy to enhance learner engagement and motivation. While VR naturally provides a platform for game-based learning, current applications often overlook the underlying motivational mechanisms that influence learner behavior in these environments. Building on Self-Determination Theory, we examined how gamification and motivational framing influence VR learning. We designed a VR system featuring both gamified and non-gamified versions of two learning tasks-one culturally expressive (batik-based task) and one technically focused (code-based task)-to reflect different motivational framings. Our findings show that gamification selectively influenced intrinsic motivation components and played a dominant role in shaping learner satisfaction. A trend-level interaction suggested that combining extrinsic framing with gamification may increase satisfaction. Gamification improved overall experience and engagement, even though it elevated perceived workload. These results highlight the importance of aligning gamification strategies with learner motivation and underscore the need for more dynamic approaches to capture motivational processes in VR, offering design insights for more effective and psychologically attuned VR learning environments.
Bai et al. (Thu,) studied this question.