Bladder Cancer (BC) mostly originates in urothelial cells and remains one of the most aggressive and fatal forms of cancer. The rate of proliferation of malignant cells is extremely high, resulting in high mortality rates globally. The prognosis of BC is very poor and limited, which results in an advanced stage of cancer. Conventional therapy, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy show poor survival rates with high recurrence and mortality. Hence, there is an utmost need for novel biomarkers that indicate and warn of any abnormalities before cancer progresses to an advanced stage. The novel biomarkers comprised Bladder Tumor Antigen (BTA), BTA-TRAK, BTA Stat, NMP22 Bladder Chek, NMP22 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), UC Antigen, Survivin, Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR), Nuclear Matrix Protein 22 (NMP22), and various miRNAs (e.g., miR-21, miR-145), etc. The state-of-the-art review illustrates the symptoms and signs, causes, pathophysiology, and types of BC. The nanotechnology-based approaches implemented are lipidbased NPs (Liposomes, SLN, NLC, Nanoemulsion), polymer-based (Polymeric micelles, Dendrimers, hydrogels), inorganic NPs (QDs, mesoporous silica), Metal-based NPs (Gold, Silver, Copper, Platinum, core-shell, and magnetic NPs), carbon-based (CNTs, GO, carbon QDs, and nanodiamonds). Moreover, recent clinical trials related to BC were also listed. Liposomes, polymeric NPs, Gold NPs, QDs, mesoporous silica, CNTs, GO, etc. showed the most promising results. Various strategies to overcome resistance in BC were explored. Recent advances in AI and ML have enabled the prediction of treatment response, enhancing diagnosis, optimizing therapy selection, and the minimization of trial-and-error approaches. Moreover, nanotechnology has assisted precision medicine, further boosting patients' survival and hope.
Qureshi et al. (Tue,) studied this question.