What does this research mean for the field?

Exposure to household pesticides, particularly pyrethroids, is associated with an increased risk of depression in adults, with distinct sex-specific vulnerabilities such as stronger associations with 3-PBA and 4F-3-PBA in females. Novelty: ClaimNovelty.INCREMENTAL. Consensus alignment: ConsensusAlignment.NEUTRAL.

What question did this study set out to answer?

This research aims to explore how household pesticide exposure affects depression risk in adults, considering age and sex differences.

April 19, 2026Open Access

Joint Association of Household Pesticide Exposure With Depression in Adults: A Cross‐Sectional Analysis From National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007–2014

Key Points

This research aims to explore how household pesticide exposure affects depression risk in adults, considering age and sex differences.
Analyzed cross‐sectional data from 6502 adults using NHANES 2007–2014.
Used self-reports and urinary metabolites to evaluate pesticide exposure.
Employed survey-weighted logistic regression and advanced mixture modeling techniques to assess exposure-response relationships.
Self-reported pesticide exposure showed a marginal association with depression, with an odds ratio of 1.43.
3‐PBA exhibited dose-dependent relationships with depression (OR = 1.02 per 1 μg/L).
Females showed stronger associations with certain metabolites like 4F‐3‐PBA (OR = 1.69) than males.

Abstract

Objectives This study aimed to investigate the association between household pesticide exposure and depression risk in adults, with a particular focus on sex‐ and age‐specific vulnerabilities. The analysis utilized integrated biomarker assessment and advanced mixture modeling techniques. Methods Cross‐sectional data from 6502 adults (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey NHANES 2007–2014) were analyzed. Household pesticide exposure was evaluated through self‐reports as well as urinary metabolites (DEET, DCBA, DHMB, 3‐phenoxybenzoic acid 3‐PBA, 4F‐3‐PBA, and cis‐DCBA). To assess exposure–response relationships, nonlinear trends, and mixture effects while adjusting for sociodemographic factors, lifestyle choices, and clinical covariates, we employed survey‐weighted logistic regression models along with restricted cubic spline (RCS), Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR), and weighted quantile sum (WQS) analyses. Results Self‐reported pesticide exposure demonstrated a marginal association with depression (adjusted odds ratio OR = 1.43; 95% confidence interval CI: 0.91–2.25). Urinary pyrethroid metabolite 3‐PBA exhibited dose‐dependent relationships with depression (OR = 1.02 per 1 μg/L; 95% CI: 1.00–1.04). Notable sex‐specific vulnerabilities were identified; females exhibited stronger associations with both 3‐PBA (OR = 1.04) and 4F‐3‐PBA (OR = 1.69), whereas males showed heightened sensitivity to DCBA (weight = 0.35). Mixture analyses indicated joint effects involving DHMB and 3‐PBA as notable contributors to the observed outcomes. Additionally, fatigue (OR = 1.26), self‐blame (OR = 1.30), and appetite disturbances (OR = 1.17) statistically contributed to pesticide exposure. Nonlinear dose–response patterns were particularly evident among males and younger adults. Conclusions This cross‐sectional analysis demonstrates an association between exposure to household pesticides, particularly pyrethroids, and an increased risk of depression, with variation across demographic groups. These findings underscore the need for further longitudinal investigation to establish causality and understand the implications of pesticide usage on public health.

Joint Association of Household Pesticide Exposure With Depression in Adults: A Cross‐Sectional Analysis From National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007–2014

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Abstract

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