What question did this study set out to answer?

To assess the difference in depressive symptoms between residents of single-storey apartments and multi-storey houses.

May 16, 2026Open Access

Vertical Architecture and Mental Health: Assessment of Depressive Symptoms Among Dwellers in Apartments and Multi-Storey Houses

MKMohamed Hesham KhalilUniversity of Cambridge KSKoen SteemersUniversity of Cambridge

Key Points

To assess the difference in depressive symptoms between residents of single-storey apartments and multi-storey houses.
Examined associations between housing type and depression symptoms using PHQ-8 data from 128 adults in England.
Adjusted for factors including gender, age, activity level, and income.
Assessed psychomotor agitation/retardation as an indicator of depression symptoms.
Residents in single-storey flats had significantly higher depression scores than multi-storey house residents.
Loneliness and apartment living were significant independent predictors of psychomotor agitation/retardation (β = −0.362, p < 0.001; β = 0.221, p = 0.016).
Only one PHQ-8 item approached statistical significance after Bonferroni correction (p = 0.056).

Abstract

Depression represents one of the most prevalent mental health challenges globally, affecting individuals across diverse populations and settings. Based on the neurogenesis-informed hypothesis that stair use may likely elevate brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in humans that in turn may have an antidepressant effect, this study takes residential buildings as a controlled environment to test whether there is a difference in depression symptoms based on single- or multi-storey housing. This study examined associations between staying at home and depression symptoms using the Public Health Questionnaire-8 (PHQ-8) data from 128 adults in England who spend most of their time at home. Residents in single-storey flats in apartment buildings had significantly higher overall depression scores than multi-storey house residents. Among the PHQ-8 items, only Item 8, psychomotor agitation/retardation (moving or speaking too slowly, or restlessly moving around more than usual), approached but did not reach statistical significance after Bonferroni correction (p = 0.056). After adjusting for gender, age, number of residents, activity level, and income, apartment living (vs. multi-storey houses) (β = −0.362, p < 0.001) and loneliness (β = 0.221, p = 0.016) were significant independent predictors of psychomotor agitation/retardation. Future research is needed to explore this relationship using a larger sample size and to explore whether the use of stairs explains this potential relationship through a change in BDNF.

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