A systematic review of cultural ecosystem services of blue carbon ecosystems: Trends, gaps, and challenges in Asia and beyond

Blue carbon ecosystems (BCEs) have reached international prominence for their role in global climate change mitigation while delivering other essential ecosystem services. Among these, cultural ecosystem services (CES) of BCEs, which are the non-material benefits that contribute to human well-being, are often under represented and unexplored due to challenges in identifying and valuing intangible benefits. Reflecting these challenges, a systematic review was conducted to analyze the state of research on CES of BCEs. Specifically, we identified the abundance of CES research, geographic distribution of studies, CES frameworks and methodologies used, and CES categories and their frequency. The results show that CES studies focusing on BCEs vary and are dependent on specific BCEs; for example, CES related to mangroves are more well-represented than in saltmarshes and seagrasses. The global distribution of studies displayed a high occurrence in Asia, with fewer studies in other regions. Furthermore, we observed that values related to physical experiences are more commonly addressed than those related to intrinsic values. Despite the progress in CES typologies and assessments, there are knowledge gaps that potentially reflect the under-investigation and limited understanding of CES in BCEs, which are valued based on people’s perceptions and the characteristics of the habitat. Additionally, there is an opportunity for CES to be integrated into restoration and climate mitigation strategies.