Reconceptualising Biggs' 3P Model: Introducing the 3P2T Framework for Dynamic Learning Environments

This paper critically reviews and expands Biggs’ widely used 3P model (Presage–Process–Product), proposing an updated and enhanced framework—the 3P2T model—to better reflect contemporary higher education contexts. The original 3P model, while influential, presents limitations due to its linear structure and lack of explicit attention to dynamic, reciprocal, and temporal factors that shape student learning today. The proposed 3P2T model addresses these shortcomings by integrating feedback loops, task-level granularity, and temporal dynamics, thereby capturing the complex interactions between student characteristics, instructional processes, and educational outcomes. By emphasising personalised and flexible pedagogical strategies responsive to diverse student populations and evolving digital environments, the 3P2T model provides educators with robust theoretical insights and practical guidance for enhancing student engagement and achievement. Future empirical validation is encouraged to further confirm its applicability and effectiveness across varied educational settings.