The Carbon-Based Evolutionary Theory: Extending Darwinian Theory to Unify Chemical, Biological, and Social Evolution

Why have simple carbon-based materials (CBMs) evolved stepwise into complex, orderly, and diverse organisms and societies? To answer this fundamental unsolved scientific question, here we extend Darwinian theory into the Carbon-Based Evolutionary Theory (CBET) to schematically interpret chemical, biological, and social evolution, through holistic reasoning and empirical evaluation. CBET involves nine hierarchies of CBMs, seven reasoning steps, and four feedback loops, which are based on three fundamental principles governing the interplay of the environment, energy, driving forces, changes, structures, and functions. These principles collectively elevate CBM hierarchies stepwise and increase the CBM diversity. They lead to natural selection, which enhances the fitness and orderliness of HHCBMs according to mathematical rules. CBET corrects multiple misconceptions about natural selection and highlights the balance between competition and inclusiveness, selfishness and altruism, and other pivotal social notions. CBET supports the harmonious development of human societies and can thus bridge natural and social sciences.