Simultaneous inactivation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and degradation of antibiotic-resistant genes in alkalised human urine

The coexistence of pharmaceuticals and microorganisms in source separated urine poses a risk for the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), especially when urine-based fertilizers are applied to soils. While prior studies have investigated pathogen inactivation in source-separated wastewater matrices, few have evaluated the simultaneous fate of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARBs) and their corresponding resistance genes (ARGs) in real urine matrices, particularly under alkaline conditions. Here, we studied the inactivation of β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium and the degradation of their respective ARGs ( bla CTX − M and van- A) in alkalized, unhydrolyzed urine (pH 10.8 and 12.5) treated with UV (65 W low pressure dichromatic mercury lamp at 185/254 nm), hydrogen peroxide (1.25 g L −1 H 2 O 2 ), and their combination (UV/H 2 O 2 ). UV/H 2 O 2 treatment resulted in >7 log 10 inactivation of both ARBs, with inactivation rate constants of −0.058 log 10 cfu min −1 ( E. coli , UV) and −0.093 log 10 cfu min −1 ( E. faecium , UV/H 2 O 2 ). In contrast, ARG reduction was limited with UV alone and negligible with H 2 O 2 alone. Gene copy reductions of 3 log10 ( bla CTX − M , k = −0.055 log10 copies min −1 ) and 2 log10 ( van- A, k = −0.040 log10 copies min −1 ) were observed under UV/H 2 O 2 . Notably, brief storage (>3 h) at pH 12.5 achieved similar ARB inactivation and ARG reduction as 80 min of UV/H 2 O 2 treatment at pH 10.8, offering a low-energy alternative for sanitizing source-separated urine.