Understanding and accessing the continuum of human/animal support services: A scoping review

Background : Approximately 66% of US households have companion animals (CAs); the majority view them as family (American Pet Products Association, 2023–2024). During economic, health, housing, and other crises, people and CAs become vulnerable to “involuntary separation” and associated risks. Human-animal support services (HA/SS) exist to keep human-animal families together. Yet, little research describes existing HA/SS services. This scoping review used Arksey and O’Malley’s framework to (1) create an initial map of HA/SS organizations in the United States (number and location); (2) describe their funding structure, (3) document the types of services provided, and (4) provide recommendations for expanding HA/SS. Methods : We reviewed academic and online HA/SS resources using Web of Science (Clarivate) for academic publications, Google site search (.org and .edu domains) for websites, and the Pethelpfinder.org clearinghouse. Organizations were included if they described US-based programs that offered interventions to prevent involuntary separation. HA/SS organizations identified by academic or Google site search were analyzed to identify geographic locations, services offered, funding sources, and population served. We compared the number of HA/SS programs identified by each search. Results : Clarivate identified 950 peer-reviewed journal abstracts and nine organizations. An additional 86 HA/SS agencies were uncovered by Google search. In comparison, Pethelpfinder.org revealed 481 organizations. HA/SS “resource deserts” were identified, largely concentrated in the Western USA. The majority (70%, n = 66) of HA/SS were initiated by non-profit animal welfare agencies; the minority originated in the human service sector. Few (5%, n = 5) involve joint collaborations between animal- and human-services. Interventions ranged from comprehensive medical, veterinary, and psychosocial services to single supports such as pet food banks. Most organizations depend upon charitable contributions; few receive local, state, or federal funds. HA/SS clients ranged from low-income families to people with immunosuppression, unhoused individuals, and those experiencing crises. Conclusions : The majority of HA/SS originates in the animal welfare sector. Clearinghouses such as Pethelpfinder.org may be more efficient ways of identifying HA/SS than other sources. Further research is needed to optimize growth of HA/SS and facilitate collaboration across human and animal service sectors.