The hazards and impacts of climate change are exacerbating. They threaten crop productivity, farmers’ resilience and the mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Understanding climatesmart agriculture (CSA) and applying it is crucial. However, the adaptation measures of smallholder farmers remain contextual, particularly whether small-scale farmers adopting CSA boost crop productivity and income scarcity. This study examines the drivers of CSA adoption and its impacts on farm performance. We used nationally representative data from a sample of 1 862 farmers cultivating less than two hectares. Endogenous switching regression (ESR) was employed to address the selection and endogeneity issues of CSA adoption. Propensity score matching (PSM) was adopted for comparative purpose. The results of both models are consistent that CSA adoption augments productivity and income. Interestingly, if non-adopters had adopted, they would have gained remarkably. The results imply that plausible programmes, promotions, campaigns or policy support measures to scale up CSA adoption can make a significant contribution to food security and poverty reduction, build farmers’ resilience, and mitigate the effects of GHG in the agricultural sector.
Bai et al. (2025) studied this question.