Genetic Diversity of Apis cerana cerena in Lüliang Mountain Area Based on Molecular Genetic Markers

Abstract To comprehensively evaluate the genetic diversity and population structure of Apis cerana cerana across six representative counties (Qingjian, Wubu, Shilou, Suide, Zizhou, Mizhi) in the Lüliang Mountains, and to provide a scientific basis for regional conservation and sustainable utilization.Twenty-one polymorphic microsatellite loci and three mitochondrial DNA fragments (COI-COII, ND2, Cyt b) were genotyped in 273 worker bees sampled from 18 colonies. Standard population-genetic statistics (PIC, Ho, He, FST, AMOVA, Nm) and phylogeographic analyses (haplotype networks, nucleotide diversity) were performed.Microsatellites PIC = 0.349, observed heterozygosity = 0.827, expected heterozygosity = 0.608. AMOVA revealed that 95.28% of total variation resides within sampling sites (FST = 0.047); gene flow Nm = 2.74 indicates panmixia. Diversity ranking: Qingjian > Wubu > Shilou > Suide > Zizhou > Mizhi. Pairwise genetic distances ranged from 0.050 (Wubu–Mizhi) to 0.129 (Suide–Zizhou). 20 variable sites defined 19 haplotypes; haplotype diversity Hd = 0.884, nucleotide diversity π = 0.00157. Haplotype richness ranked Zizhou > Shilou > Wubu > Qingjian > Suide > Mizhi. Mantel tests showed no isolation-by-distance (R² = 0.08, P > 0.05).The six populations form a single, highly diverse management unit with weak spatial structure. Priority should be given to protecting high-diversity counties (Qingjian, Zizhou) as genetic reservoirs while maintaining landscape connectivity to sustain ongoing gene flow.