Abstract We present a novel python-based 1D sub-Neptune evolution model that emphasizes the thermal evolution and potential solidification of the rock/iron core and the structure of the radiative atmosphere. This model explores planetary structure from the molten center to nbar pressure levels. Treating the radiative atmosphere is crucial for sub-Neptunes, due to the large scale height and low gravity, which contributes up to 40% of their observed radius, especially for low-mass, highly irradiated planets. Consequently, we generically find that lower H/He mass fractions are needed to match a given planetary radius, compared to previous work. While the presence of metal enrichment in the H/He layers (here modeled as 50× solar) does not substantially influence the size of the convective envelope, it notably reduces the transit radius by shrinking the radiative atmospheric scale height. Sub-Neptunes cool differently from terrestrial planets, with the rock/iron core’s cooling rate limited by the envelope, leading to longer solidification timescales. Complete solidification of the silicate mantle by 10 Gyr is found only for planets with very low masses (≤1 M ⊕ ) and small H/He envelopes (≤0.1%). Dynamo action in sub-Neptune iron cores persists as long as the mantle surface remains molten, often exceeding 10 Gyr, and becomes sensitive to core thermal conductivity after solidification. We examine aspects of “boil-off,” which sets the maximum allowed H/He mass and planetary radius for subsequent evolution. The rock/iron’s cooling energy moderately decreases the post-boil-off H/He mass fraction in planets with large atmospheric scale heights only.
Tang et al. (2025) studied this question.