Abstract Muscle cell-powered biohybrid robots represent a transformative fusion of biological tissue engineering and robotics, offering unprecedented potential for biomedical applications targeted at drug delivery, regenerative medicine, bioengineered heart patches, lab-on-a-chip devices, biosensors and soft surgical tools. This review categorizes the currently available examples and further explores advanced biofabrication techniques that drive the development of biohybrid systems, with a focus on 3D bioprinting, electrospinning, micro/nano patterning, self-assembly, and microfluidic devices. These fabrication strategies facilitate precise cell alignment, enhance electrical and mechanical properties, and enable the seamless integration of biological components with engineered structures. By incorporating both cardiomyocytes and skeletal muscle cells, biohybrid robots achieve controlled actuation, autonomous movement, and adaptability to environmental stimuli. Furthermore, we discuss the latest optimization strategies in biofabrication, addressing key challenges such as scalability, biocompatibility, and functional integration. Biohybrid robots, including swimmers, actuators, and pumps, enable targeted drug delivery, assistive devices, and fluid transport in engineered tissues. Their integration with biological systems advances regenerative medicine, disease modeling, drug screening, and soft robotics. This review provides a comprehensive perspective on the state-of-the-art advancements and potential optimization in the fabrication techniques, paving the way for the next generation of biohybrid robotic systems.
Wang et al. (2025) studied this question.