Extended reality (XR) technologies—including augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), mixed reality (MR), and desktop virtual reality (dVR)—are rapidly advancing STEM education by providing immersive and interactive learning experiences. Despite their potential, many XR applications lack consistent design grounded in human–computer interaction (HCI), leading to challenges in usability, engagement, and learning outcomes. Through a comprehensive analysis of 50 peer-reviewed studies, this paper reveals both strengths and limitations in current implementations and suggest improvements for reducing cognitive load and enhancing engagement. To support this analysis, we draw briefly on a dual-phase learning model (L1–L2), which distinguishes between interface learning (L1) and conceptual or procedural learning (L2). By aligning theoretical insights with practical HCI strategies, the discussions from this study are intended to offer potentially actionable insights for educators and developers on XR design for STEM education. Based on a detailed analysis of the articles, this paper finally makes recommendations to educators and developers on important considerations and limitations concerning the optimal use of XR technologies in STEM education. The guidelines for design proposed by this review offer directions for developers intending to build XR frameworks that effectively improve presence, interaction, and immersion whilst considering affordability and accessibility.
Chandramouli et al. (2025) studied this question.