This review provides an updated overview of the pathogenesis, classification, current management, and emerging therapies for diabetic retinopathy (DR). DR development involves dysregulation of the polyol pathway, formation of advanced glycation end products, activation of protein kinase C, and upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Disruption of the retinal neurovascular unit, including neurons, glial cells, and vascular elements, also plays a pivotal role, leading to microvascular damage, neurodegeneration, and inflammation. DR progresses from non-proliferative (NPDR) to proliferative stages (PDR) characterized by retinal neovascularization. Management emphasizes glycemic and blood pressure control, with advanced stages treated using laser photocoagulation, vitrectomy, and intravitreal anti-VEGF injections. Novel imaging technologies like optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) and electroretinography (ERG) enable early diagnosis and disease monitoring. Genetic factors, including VEGF polymorphisms and genes linked to oxidative stress and angiogenesis, significantly influence DR susceptibility. Innovative treatments under investigation include nanotechnology-based drug delivery, microRNA-targeted therapies, and AAV-mediated gene therapies aimed at anti-angiogenic pathways. Stem cell-based strategies utilizing adipose, bone marrow, amniotic, and umbilical cord-derived. It shows promise for retinal repair and neuroprotection. Future directions encompass CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing for precise genomic interventions, personalized medicine approaches, and integrated screening programs powered by artificial intelligence. A multifaceted approach involving risk factor modification, lifestyle interventions, advanced therapeutics, and cost-effectiveness analysis is essential to reduce the public health burden of diabetic retinopathy.
Ciorba et al. (2025) studied this question.