Widespread occurrence of fecal indicator bacteria in oligotrophic tropical streams. Are common culture-based coliform tests appropriate?

Monitoring of stream water quality is a key element of water resource management worldwide, but methods that are commonly used in temperate habitats may not be appropriate in humid tropical systems. We assessed the influence of four land uses on microbial water quality in 21 streams in the Panama Canal Watershed over a one-year period, using a common culture-based fecal indicator test and 16S rDNA metabarcoding. Each stream was located within one of four land uses: mature forest, secondary forest, silvopasture, and traditional cattle pasture. Culturing detected total coliforms and